Participant observation can be viewed as a methodology, rather than a method, as it took shape within particular historical and social circumstances within anthropology and sociology. It is a procedure for generating understanding about the way of life of others. However, as there are many practical ‘how to’ issues involved in the use of participant observation, I am going to discuss it as a research method. But as you will see, there are several methodological issues which are raised in the following discussion, especially concerning ethics and the personal role of the researcher.

Participant observation can be carried out within any community, culture or context which is different to the usual community and/or culture of the researcher. It may be carried out within a remote African tribe or in hospitals, factories, schools, prisons and so on, within your own country. The researcher immerses herself into the community - the action is deliberate and intended to add to knowledge.

The researcher participates in the community while observing others within that community, and as such she must be a researcher 24 hours a day. In practice most researchers find that they play more of a role as observer, than they do as a participant.

GAINING ACCESS

Participant observation, as a research method, cannot work unless you’re able to gain access to the community that you wish to study. Before you spend a lot of time planning your project you need to find out whether you can obtain this access. The level of negotiation required will depend upon the community, culture or context. If it is a culture with which you already have a certain amount of familiarity, and vice versa, you should find it easier to gain access. However, if it is a secret or suspicious community, you may find it much harder to gain access.

Using gatekeepers

If you do expect to encounter difficulties, one way to overcome this problem is to befriend a member of that community who could act as a gatekeeper and help you to get to know other people. Obviously, it is important to spend time building up the required level of trust before you can expect someone to introduce you into their community.

If it is not possible to befriend a member of the community, you may have to approach the person or committee in charge, firstly by letter and then in person. You have to be persuasive.

Creating a good impression

First impressions are important and you need to make sure that you dress and act appropriately within the community. You must not appear threatening in any way. Some people will be suspicious of the motives of a researcher, especially if they’re not familiar with the research process. In the early stages it is better to answer any questions or suspicions directly and honestly rather than try to avoid them or shrug them off.

ACTING ETHICALLY

Because of the nature of participant observation, there tends to be more issues involving ethics and morals to consider. As you intend to become part of a specific group, will you be expected to undertake anything illegal? This could happen with research into drug use or crime syndicates where people may not trust you until you become one of them and join in their activities. Would you be prepared to do this and put up with any consequences which could arise as a result of your activities?

If the group is suspicious, do you intend to be completely honest about who you are and what you’re doing? Are you prepared to lie if it means you can gain access? How would you deal with any problems which may arise as a consequence of your deception?

What if your participation within a group causes problems, anxiety or argument amongst other members? Would you know how to deal with the situation? Would you be prepared to withdraw and ruin all your hard work for the sake of your informants? These issues and others are covered in more depth in Chapter 13. Also, there are many personal considerations and dilemmas which you need to think about before undertaking participant observation, as illustrated below:

COLLECTING AND ANALYSING INFORMATION

At the beginning of a participant observation study it is hard to understand what everything means. At first something may appear very significant, but later it might become a minor detail. However, you will not know this until you have started to analyse what is going on. So it is important from the outset to start taking copious notes. You need to have a good memory as in many situations it is not possible to take notes at the time. You need to have a notepad and/or laptop with you at all times so that you can write down your thoughts as soon as possible after the encounter.

All researchers ask questions. However, in the beginning stages of a participant observation study, it is better to seek information by not asking questions. This is because it is hard for you to know what to ask at this stage. Instead, you will find that people come to you and ask questions. This in itself is valuable information and can tell you a lot about those people, so all questions should be noted and analysed.

Field notes

Field notes are your main way of recording data. These might be practical details about events, times, dates and places. Or they might be methodological notes concerning your role, your influence on the encounter, your relationship with the informants, sampling procedures and so on. As time moves on your notes will be to do with a preliminary analysis and the forming of hypotheses which you can go on to check out with your informants. They may be observations on what a specific encounter might mean. Also, as your research progresses you will start to code and classify your notes (see Chapter 11).

Taking notes is a very personal process and you need to find a method which will suit you. Many researchers develop their own form of shorthand, but if you do this keep it simple because, if your contact is over a long period of time, you may not understand the shorthand you used at the beginning. Most researchers keep a day-to-day diary in addition to all the other field notes. You will also need to keep all transcripts of interviews, photographs, maps, tapes, visual recordings, diagrams and plans. Everything needs to be recorded and stored systematically so good organisational skills are important if you wish to undertake participant observation.

Some researchers find it useful to obtain a laptop for recording and storing information when in the field, but this will depend on the situation. Indeed, this applies to all IT equipment – you will need to make sure that there is safe and secure storage and that you have obtained appropriate insurance, as well as checking that your participants are happy with you recording and storing information in this way.

Most of your analysis takes place in the field so that you can cross check and verify your hypotheses. At this stage you will find that you will have a number of key informants who will be able to help you with this process. This is very useful as they will tell you if you’re on the wrong track.

WITHDRAWING FROM THE FIELD

When you have been immersed in a particular culture for a long period of time, it can be hard to break away. Indeed, some researchers have found that they do not want to break away, although this only happens rarely. If, however, you have remained connected to your role as researcher, you will know when it is time to break away, write up your results and pass on what you have learnt.

It is important to leave your community on good terms. Many researchers find that it is helpful to stay in touch with their contacts - these people will want to see what is written about them. They will be interested and may still have comments to make. You may also wish to return to your community several years later and conduct a follow-up study.

Finally, you must make sure that you try not to do anything which will give researchers a bad name and cause problems for other researchers who may wish to follow in your footsteps (see Chapter 13).

SUMMARY

• In participant observation, the researcher immerses herself into a community, culture or context. The action is deliberate and intended to add to knowledge.

• A participant observer is a researcher 24 hours a day.
• To gain access a researcher must be non-threatening, displaying appropriate behaviour and body language and wearing appropriate dress.
• A useful way of gaining access is to find a gatekeeper who can introduce you to other members of the community.
• A researcher needs to do much soul-searching before going into the field as the experience can raise many ethical, moral and personal dilemmas.
• It is sometimes quicker and more economical to wait for questions to come to the researcher, rather than ask questions of informants in the early stages of a study.
• Field notes may record practical details, methodological issues, personal thoughts, preliminary analyses and working hypotheses.
• Data analysis takes place in the field so that hypotheses can be discussed with key informants.
• The community should be left on good terms and any written reports should be given back to the people for their interest and personal comments.

FURTHER READING