As we have seen in Chapter 3, there are three main types of interview which tend to be used in social research – unstructured interviews, semi-structured interviews and structured interviews. For each type you will need to think about how you are going to record the interview, what type of questions you need to ask, how you intend to establish rapport and how you can probe for more information.

METHODS OF RECORDING

If you’ve decided that interviewing is the most appropriate method for your research, you need to think about what sort of recording equipment you’re going to use. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are listed in Table 7. You should think about recording methods early on in your research as you need to become familiar with their use through practice. Even if you decide not to use audio recording equipment, and instead use pen and paper, you should practise taking notes in an interview situation, making sure that you can maintain eye contact and write at the same time.

If, however, you’re conducting a structured interview, you will probably develop a questionnaire with boxes to tick as your method of recording (see Chapter 9). This is perhaps the simplest form of recording, although you will have to be familiar with your questionnaire, to make sure you can work through it quickly and efficiently.

Using audio recording equipment

If you are a student find out what audio recording equipment is available for your use. Today there is a wide variety of recorders available – prices vary enormously and some designs and types are more suited to certain tasks than others. The general rule is that the more you pay for your equipment the better the recording will be. However, there are many other factors that influence the quality of your recording and even if you are on a limited budget you can still obtain a good recording using cheap equipment if you plan carefully.

It is useful to take a pen and notepad with you to the interview, even if you intend to use a recorder. You might find it useful to jot down pertinent points to which you want to return later, or use it to remind yourself of what you haven’t yet asked. Also, you might encounter someone who doesn’t want to be recorded. This could be because the research is on a sensitive issue, or it might be that the interviewee has a fear of being recorded.

Taking notes

If you intend to take notes, buy yourself a shorthand notepad and develop a shorthand style which you’ll be able to understand later (see Chapter 10). It is advisable to write up all notes into a longer report as soon as possible after the interview while it’s still fresh in your mind.

If you can type quicker than you can write, and you have use of a laptop, you may prefer to type your notes as the interviewee speaks, although you should check that they are happy for you to do this as some people may find it a little off-putting. An advantage to taking notes in this way is that you can organise your notes easily and cut and paste relevant information and quotations into documents and reports.

It can be tiring taking notes in long interviews, so only arrange one or two per day. You must learn to try to maintain some eye contact while you’re writing or typing, and make sure that you nod every now and again to indicate that you’re still listening. Try also to get one or two verbatim quotations as these will be useful for your final report.

DEVELOPING AN INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

For most types of interview you need to construct an interview schedule. For structured interviews you will need to construct a list of questions which is asked in the same order and format to each participant (see Chapter 9). For semi-structured interviews the schedule may be in the form of a list of questions or a list of topics.

If you’re new to research, you might prefer a list of questions that you can ask in a standard way, thus ensuring that you do not ask leading questions or struggle for something to ask.

However, a list of topics tends to offer more flexibility, especially in unstructured interviews where the interviewee is left to discuss issues she deems to be important. By ticking off each topic from your list as it is discussed, you can ensure that all topics have been covered. Often interviewees will raise issues without being asked and a list of topics ensures that they do not have to repeat themselves. Also, it allows the interviewee to raise pertinent issues which you may not have thought about. These can then be added to the schedule for the next interview.

Overcoming nerves

If you’re nervous about working with a list of topics rather than a list of questions, a good way to overcome this is to ask a few set questions first and then, once you and the interviewee have both relaxed, move on to a set of topics. With practice, you will feel comfortable interviewing and will choose the method which suits you best.

Focusing your mind

If you take time to produce a detailed interview schedule, it helps you to focus your mind on your research topic, enabling you to think about all the areas which need to be covered. It should also alert you to any sensitive or controversial issues which could arise.

When developing an interview schedule for any type of interview, begin with easy to answer, general questions which will help the interviewee feel at ease. Don’t expect in-depth, personal disclosure immediately.

ESTABLISHING RAPPORT

A researcher has to establish rapport before a participant will share personal information. There are a number of ways to do this.

• Treat interviewees with respect. Make sure you arrive on time. Don’t rush straight into the interview unless the interviewee pushes to do so. Accept a cup of tea, if offered, and make polite conversation to help put both of you at ease.
• Think about your appearance and the expectations of the person you’re about to interview. If the interviewee is a smartly turned out business person who expects to be interviewed by a professional looking researcher, make sure you try to fulfil those expectations with your appearance and behaviour.
• Think about body language. Try not to come across as nervous or shy. Maintain appropriate eye-contact and smile in a natural, unforced manner. Remember that the eyes and smile account for more than 50% of the total communication in a greeting situation. If you establish rapid and clear eye-contact, you’ll be more easily trusted.
• During the interview, firm eye contact with little movement indicates that you’re interested in what is being said. Also, it indicates honesty and high self-esteem. On the other hand, if your eyes wander all over the place and only briefly make contact with the eyes of the interviewee, low self-esteem, deceit or boredom can be indicated. Don’t rub your eyes as this could indicate you’re tired or bored. Conversely, watch the eyes of your interviewees which will tell you a lot about how the interview is progressing.
• Don’t invade their space. Try not to sit directly opposite them – at an angle is better, but not by their side as you will have to keep turning your heads which will be uncomfortable in a long interview.

By watching the eye movements and body language of the interviewees, and by listening to what they’re saying, you’ll soon know when you’ve established rapport. This is when you can move on to more personal or sensitive issues. If, however, you notice the interviewees becoming uncomfortable in any way, respect their feelings and move on to a more general topic. Sometimes you might need to offer to turn off the recorder or stop taking notes if you touch upon a particularly sensitive issue.

ASKING QUESTIONS AND PROBING FOR INFORMATION

As the interview progresses, ask questions, listen carefully to responses and probe for more information. You should probe in a way which doesn’t influence the interviewee. When you probe, you need to think about obtaining clarification, elaboration, explanation and understanding. There are several ways to probe for more detail, as the following list illustrates. It’s useful to learn a few of these before you begin your interviews.

Pauses work well – don’t be afraid of silence. You’ll find that most people are uncomfortable during silences and will elaborate on what they’ve said rather than experience discomfort. Also, you may find it helpful to summarise what people have said as a way of finding out if you have understood them and to determine whether they wish to add any further information.

Another useful tactic is to repeat the last few words a person has said, turning it into a question. The following piece of dialogue from an interview illustrates how these techniques can be used so that the researcher does not influence what is being said.

This piece of dialogue illustrates how, with careful probing, the researcher can discover a greater depth of information which wasn’t initially offered by the interviewee.

COMPLETING THE INTERVIEW

Negotiate a length of time for the interviews and stick to it, unless the interviewees are happy to continue. Make sure you thank them for their help and leave a contact number in case they wish to speak to you at a later date.

You might find it useful to send a transcript to the interviewees – it is good for them to have a record of what has been said and they might wish to add further information. Do not disclose information to third parties unless you have received permission to do so (see Chapter 13).

SUMMARY

• Practise with the recording equipment before the interview takes place. It might be useful to conduct some pilot interviews so that you can become familiar with the recording equipment.
• Develop an interview schedule, starting with general, non-personal issues.
• Check the recording equipment works and make sure you have enough tapes, disks, memory and/or batteries, paper, pens, etc.
• Check that you have a suitable venue in which to carry out the interview, free from noise and interruptions.
• Make sure you know how to get to the interview and arrive in good time.
• Dress and behave appropriately.
• Establish rapport.

• Negotiate a length of time for the interview and stick to it, unless the interviewee is happy to continue.
• Ask open questions, listen to responses and probe where necessary.
• Keep questions short and to the point.
• Avoid jargon, double-barrelled questions and leading questions.
• Listen carefully and acknowledge that you are listening.
• Check recording equipment is working without drawing attention to it.
• Repeat and summarise answers to aid clarity and understanding.
• Achieve closure, thank them and leave a contact number in case they wish to get in touch with you about anything that has arisen.
• Respect their confidentiality – do not pass on what has been said to third parties unless you have requested permission to do so.

FURTHER READING