John Grierson, acknowledged to be the inventor of the word, defined ‘documentary’ as an attempt to build up with a camera a true but nevertheless dramatised version of life. This means that just as in any other film or video presentation, apart from live coverage of events, a good script is the key to success.

Screenings of documentaries fall mainly into two separate areas

• theatrical
• non-theatrical

By theatrical is meant showings in cinemas (a rarity now unfortunately), on television or by the sale or rental of videocassettes or similar means like DVD.

By non-theatrical is meant showings to non-paying audiences, either specially invited or through free or nominal rental or sale, usually via film or video libraries to schools, universities or any specialist organisations in industry, medicine or other professional or social groups. In this category can also be included Business Television Networks which are usually transmitted via satellite to employees or potential customers. In the UK there are at least 56 such networks, in Europe 29 and in the USA 310, all of which add up to over 50,000 hours of programming a year.

PRODUCTION

The production of documentaries is fairly evenly divided between film and video, the basic consideration being the style and scope of the subject and how it is to be shown. For example, if it is intended at the outset that major showings will be for audiences of 200 or more on as large a screen as possible, then film is still preferable with subsequent showings transferred to video for smaller audiences which may be down to one person running a program on DVD on their computer. Equally, there are some situations in remote or rugged locations where film cameras may be more adaptable and reliable, being mechanical rather than electronic.

Conversely, the ever increasing sophistication, simplification and portability of video equipment means that productions whose release are predominantly on a TV screen, originate more and more on video, with, in the case of Business Television, a percentage of live transmission interspersed with pre-recorded film or video sequences.

Unfortunately, although the technology exists for recording in extra high quality video for high definition television (HDTV) enabling the projection of pictures on to screens as large and with quality as good as film projection, the equipment is not yet universally available at anything like realistic costs. Nevertheless, original recording on HDTV or even disc with subsequent transfer to film, projection on disc or anything else is becoming more feasible.

DOCUMENTARY SUBJECTS

The major ‘theatrical’ subjects for documentaries are:

• travel
• adventure
• wildlife
• science
• art
• sport
• current affairs
• social problems
• home improvements
• reality TV

Not so well known perhaps is the enormous range of subjects in the non-theatrical field, some of which overlap with the above:

• teaching and instructional
• sales (either direct or indirect)
• propaganda (however cunningly disguised)
• recruitment
• public relations
• health and safety

SPONSORSHIP

There is one major difference in the two sectors and that is that invariably films made for non-theatrical audiences

have been sponsored by whoever is interested in putting over their message to a particular audience. This may be so broad that they would like to reach as wide and large an audience as possible and therefore are delighted if they succeed in getting a television showing for the production they have sponsored, in cash or kind. Travel documentaries sponsored by airlines or tourist offices are good examples.

In many countries there is still an aversion to showing sponsored programmes, however obliquely slanted and brilliantly carried out. But with the increasing cost of production, this is an area that may well see more changes just as sports sponsorship has come to be accepted virtually everywhere.

JOB DIFFERENCES IN DOCUMENTARIES

So what are the differences and additional entry points for someone keen on the production of documentaries?

Scripts

First the script which is more akin to journalism but thinking in primarily visual terms. Thus a good article on a technical subject with long quotes from experts may be absolutely non-visual apart from long sequences of ‘talking heads’, a Type of presentation all too common on television but by no means the most exciting way of putting a subject across.

This visual imagination and good construction of the script with a strong opening, a logical development, periodic punctuation points and an exciting climax, applies equally to the documentary aimed at the widest international audience as to the most specialised subject, for example medical, aimed at highly specialised viewers.

So the first task for the potential documentary scriptwriter is to narrow down the broad subject areas that interest you most. Of course, experienced writers maintain that, like journalists, any subject can be researched sufficiently deeply for a presentation that may run for a comparatively short time. But it would be foolish for the most part to put yourself forward for example for predominantly science based subjects without some basic science education and interest.

If writing for a television audience is your primary ambition, the BBC, the ITV companies and their equivalent anywhere in the world, have sizeable documentary departments, sometimes broken down into subject areas such as arts and music, science or current affairs. Although they may still maintain a permanent staff which may include researchers, writers and writer/ directors (a common combination in documentaries), increasingly they employ freelance people for specific programmes or series of programmes. And with the tendency to de-regulate television in Britain and pressure to employ independent production companies, their role becomes more important.

Independents

Some confusion may arise over the term ‘independent’. When the BBC’s monopoly ended in the 1950s, television companies that relied on advertising for their revenue were called Commercial Television Contractors and each was responsible for supplying programmes for different parts of the United Kingdom, although they often banded together, as they still do, to provide programmes for the entire network.

Gradually, as franchises changed, these companies came to be known as the Independent Television companies, although their independence was ultimately controlled by the advertisers and, it could be argued, that the BBC, supported only by the licence fee, was strictly more independent. But the name ITV has stuck and the real ‘independents’ (or ‘indies’ as they’re sometimes called) are the production companies set up by producer/ impresarios with directors perhaps and varying from a basic administrative structure to quite elaborate organisations with their own technical facilities. (See also Chapter 3 on Commercials.)

So, in addition to seeking work as a writer in the BBC or ITV companies where competition for jobs is high, you would be advised to concentrate also on the independent production companies, finding out what subjects they have produced or are preparing. The names appear in the directories listed in the Appendix but as with commercials, studying the trade papers is useful. Screen International, TV News Digest and Broadcast are the best known.

Channel Four

There is another good reason for approaching the independent companies. When Channel Four started, many producers and directors left the BBC and ITV to set up their own companies, for Channel Four, uniquely in Britain, is like a publisher. It does not produce its own programmes, broadly, but commissions independent companies, and sometimes the ITV companies too, to produce on its behalf. This does not always amount to 100% finance however and increasingly co-productions or complicated deals with pre-sales to other countries arranged by the production company are the ways that programmes are packaged and this certainly includes documentaries. This also applies to Channel Five and others like the History Channel.

Independents widen the net

The proliferation of independents and the long drawn out negotiations for setting up programmes meant that they had to turn to the production of specialised subjects for non-theatrical audiences as well.

Similarly, companies who had built their reputations on the production of these Types of films and videos, went to Channel Four with ideas for programmes, often with great success. Luckily the sub-contracting to independents of programmes, including documentaries, by the BBC and ITV, led to a greater expansion, albeit with more competition, in the independent sector than in other areas of film or television.

Selling your idea

As always with getting a foothold as a writer, for whatever audience, it is the basic idea that is the most important. And in the case of documentaries, as well as originality, there must be practicality.

So, for example, if you have an idea for an advanced driver training series which might appeal to an oil company as a sponsor, it would pay to research the Type of productions that particular oil companies have made and then approach the production companies who have made programmes for them.

Similarly, if you have an idea for a particular science subject, approach the producer in the BBC or ITV that currently is responsible for a science series. Single documentaries are generally more difficult to sell on television everywhere in the world, so it is usually better to slant your idea towards an existing or proposed series. But, probably, best of all, is to try to get an independent production company interested in your idea.

The ideas for sponsored films or corporate videos as they may now be called, largely though not exclusively originate from the client or sponsor who commissions the work, signs a contract and therefore owns the copyright and the material. Like commercials, very often films or videos may have to fit in with overall sales or public relations policy using other media. Production schedules can also be very tight.

Other starting points in documentaries

One entry point for which there may be vacancies is for researchers. In the corporate sector, researchers are normally used for highly technical or obscure subjects but in television, researchers are more common. The actual job and all the ancillary ones are well covered in a BBC publication:

• The Television Researchers Guide by Kathy Chater obtainable from BBC Publications.

So if you have qualifications in any specialised subjects or merely an inquisitive, persistent and orderly mind, the job of researcher in documentaries is a good introduction to script writing. A word of warning however; researchers are expected to come up with facts, contacts and visual possibilities. They are not expected to suggest to the writer the shape of the script, unless this is done with the utmost tact and diffidence.

Researchers engaged on highly technical or unusual subjects however, may be asked to move forward to writing a script and this has even been known to result in their directing also, if only because they are the only people around who know enough about the subject to be able to work amicably with experts! Finally, as an outsider if you can put up an idea to a producer and introduce a sponsor or some finance, you will always be welcome.

Production starting points

With the other technical jobs in other departments -production, camera, sound, editing (film or video), the same advice applies as with previous chapters on commercials and feature films. But again, it is a matter of research to find the departments of the BBC, ITV or the independent production companies who are active in the area that interests you most.

As with commercials, most independent production companies have a permanent set-up, however modest,

and therefore the runner, tea person, secretarial route in is often as good as any but obviously for the more technical departments like camera, sound and editing, film school training can again put you at an advantage (see Chapter 7 on Training).

The growth of Business TV Networks may provide opportunities for newcomers, in which case you will need to approach production companies who specialise in this kind of work.

Art direction

Art direction and design form a less important part of documentaries, although some fictionalised story lines may be incorporated. Historical reconstruction for example or even quite elaborate dramatic sequences or complete productions when what may still be called a documentary becomes in production terms akin to a feature film or television drama; the films of John Cleese demonstrating sales techniques are good examples.

Normal size of a documentary production crew

The more usual documentary film approach only differs from the production of feature films and commercials in size, scope, schedule and budget. This means that in overall charge of the production is certainly a producer.

If the company is handling more than one project in parallel, even if not actually in production at the same time, there will be a production manager. Of course, a director may well have done his own research, treatment (see Figure 1) and script. An assistant director (sometimes on documentaries called a unit manager or personalassistant (PA)) does the detailed organisation both before and during shooting. This is a very important job on documentaries as with more restricted budgets, the assistant becomes in addition a public relations person for the company, dealing both with people and facilities on location and guarding the budget and schedule. Transport, meals and accommodation are also his responsibility as is the general contentment of everybody concerned with the production. This is sometimes a delicate balancing act, bearing in mind that he is, even if a freelance, basically a company person answerable to the production manager and producer.

Technical jobs on a documentary

The camera department normally consists of a cameraman who is responsible for lighting, if applicable, exposure and normally does his own operating (see Camera Operator feature films page 26). He has one camera assistant who does the jobs of focus puller and clapper/loader (see feature films page 26) and both are responsible for the camera equipment which may include a lightweight dolly (even a wheel chair can be used) and this is operated by whoever can be most spared.

If lighting is at all elaborate, one or more electricians are employed, not only to install and adjust lights but to link up to mains supplies and guard against overloading.

The sound department often reduces to one sound recordist who operates the tape recorder, places microphones in position, adjusts neck or radio mikes or handles

a microphone during the shot. With elaborate camera movement and complicated dialogue scenes, it may be advisable for quality and speed to employ a boom swinger or operator similar to a feature film.

The editing staff on film consists of an editor with one assistant editor who may be engaged by the company for one film or be permanently employed by the company. Equally, as with commercials, editing may be sub-contracted to an editing service specialising in documentaries.

The actual editing of a filmed documentary follows exactly similar patterns to feature films (Page 46).