POST-PRODUCTION

NOTE: the following is a description of the traditional methods of editing on film. However, the introduction of non-linear digital editing systems such as Avid or Light-works means that these methods are now increasingly

being used throughout the world. See page 92, Commercials Post-Production, for digital editing procedures (including digital effects).

Initial stages

By post-production is meant the assembling and editing of picture and sound, recording of music, creation, re-recording and mixing of sound tracks, preparing and making graphics for titles and the processing of the film in the laboratory from the developing and printing of the rushes to the making of the final prints for release to cinemas.

At the end of the day’s shooting, the exposed picture negative will have been developed and printed overnight by the laboratory. The negative remains at the laboratory and the prints are despatched as early as possible to the cutting room. Somebody from the production unit, either the first assistant director or one of the camera crew will have already telephoned the contact at the lab for a rushes report. This is purely a technical report on the state of the negative, exposure, steadiness and so on. If there is anything doubtful, the editor will have also received a written report with the rushes prints and will have had a look himself and conferred with the director and producer as to whether it is necessary to consider a re-take.

Laboratories vary in how meticulous their technical observations can be and many a devastating report on a certain scene can turn out to be exaggerated and no cause for panic. But equally, real disasters may call for very quick decisions on the part of the producer as highly paid artists may have to be re-called and schedules re-arranged if re-takes due to technical faults prove necessary, although many faults can now be corrected digitally (see pages 128-130 computerised animation).

Synching up the rushes

Let us assume that the report from the lab is ‘all OK’ and that the sound rushes, that is the 35mm sprocketed tape, have also been received by the cutting room. The first job of the assistant editors, first and/or second, is to ‘synch up’ the rushes. This is done by placing the print of the picture and the magnetic tape in a synchroniser which is a device for running two or more pieces of sprocketed film or tape in parallel on a cutting room bench. The assistant then has to find the relevant slate and take number on the picture and mark with a chinagraph pencil the exact frame where the hinged part of the clapper board meets the lower part. He then has to find on the magnetic tape, listening to the voice of the clapper/loader, the same slate and take number and the sound of the clap marking this exact frame also with the chinagraph. The picture and sound are then put into the synchroniser in parallel and are wound on to wire spools with two lengths of ‘leader’ at the front with parallel start marks for the projectionist to lace up when running the rushes. Start and synch marks for picture are marked and sound.

So each scene is joined on to the next, keeping each roll in synch throughout in the synchroniser and finally rewound so as to be ready for viewing by the unit.

After the rushes have been viewed, the picture and sound will be sent for numbering – that is the printing of the slate number and the cumulative footage down the side of the film and tape from the clapper board to the end of the scene. This is done so that however the film is subsequently cut and edited, the picture and sound can be put in the synchroniser matching the numbers and kept in synch. Studios may have their own numbering machines or special companies may offer this service.

After numbering, the rushes have to be logged in a notebook, writing the slate and take numbers with a short description of the scene, the ‘edge’ or ‘key’ numbers which are printed by the stock manufacturers and the newly printed ‘rubber’ numbers. This log book forms the basic filing system for the assistant editors and during the subsequent editing and re-editing process is absolutely essential for reference.

Breaking down the rushes

The next job is for the rolls of rushes to be broken down into their separate slate numbers. These are individually rolled up and put into tins or boxes clearly labelled for easy access.

It may become possible now for the editor to start assembling various sequences whilst the shooting is still in progress. The cutting room staff will have copies of the shooting script which can be cross referenced with the continuity sheets which will show the script number to which each slate number refers. The assembly of sequences is put together as far as possible in script order and gradually the film begins to take shape. The completed full rolls (approximately 1,000 feet of 35mm) of picture and sound are called the cutting copy and are labelled action cutting copy reel 1 and sound or dialogue cutting copy reel 1.

Editing builds up

And so the reels build up as shooting proceeds and, in theory, it should be possible to have a rough assembly of the whole film very soon after the last day of shooting.

There may however be sections missing. For example, special effects shots, overseas establishing shots, sequences or shots which are being staged by a second unit under a second unit director and second unit cameraman and crew. Although some of these second unit shots may be purely routine, such as a car driving past camera, they may involve elaborate stunts employing stunt men with shots incorporating flying, ski-ing, underwater or falls or crashes. James Bond films are a good example of where the material from the second unit is every bit as important as that from the main unit.

The first assembly of a film is invariably too long but most editors and directors prefer to start that way and then reduce and tighten up sequences for this makes it easier to see where the film loses momentum and even whether some scenes or sequences might be removed altogether.

But this is where the editor’s experience is invaluable to the director even if the editor’s proposals for cutting and elimination may sometimes prove painful to the director who remembers the agonies he has gone through and even the time to complete a certain shot. But he will be well advised to heed the editor’s advice with his more detached view of the film and, of course, his talent as an editor.

Conversely, for an editor to have the opportunity of examining the raw material from the start and of seeing where the director may have gone wrong, is very useful training for an editor with ambitions to direct.

Similarly, the job of assistant editor, although not requiring particularly creative skills but merely the ability to anticipate the requirements of the editor and operate a meticulous filing system, can provide useful opportunities to observe the skills of an editor as he builds up the pace and rhythm of a film.

Power of editing

Much has been written about the power of editing from the early silent Russian films of Eisenstein to the techniques of David Lean. Suffice here to say that a good editor can certainly improve an actor’s performance and enliven a routine script but cannot change radically a bad basic idea.

In spite of the growth in transferring film to tape or disc for editing (see Chapter 4, Documentaries), cutting on film still enables the editor to view sequences on a large screen in a viewing theatre. However, tape and disc editing allow faster access and the ability to try alternative cuts quickly but sequences can only be viewed on a monitor sized screen. So let’s assume the editor is cutting on film.

Technicalities of editing

The most common device for viewing film in a cutting room is called a Steenbeck. This enables the picture to be seen on a screen and can take one or more sound tracks laced up synchronously. Picture and sound can be run forwards or backwards, singly or together, fast or slowly, right down to viewing each frame of film individually. As with the assistant synching up the rushes initially, the editor uses a chinagraph pencil to mark the frame where he wishes to make the cut.

The spare material from the beginning and end of the scene is taken by the assistant, rolled up and marked with its slate and take number. All these unused pieces are put into boxes which are called cuts. The unused scenes are called spares.

It is here that the assistant needs to take care with the filing system for, as the editing proceeds, the editor may want to add to a scene previously cut and will expect the assistant to find the right piece straight away. Likewise if scenes get progressively shorter, the assistant must keep all the pieces carefully wrapped and labelled.

The rough cut

When the whole film has been assembled and roughly edited, all the reels of cutting copy, action and sound, are called the rough cut. They are gradually fined down, emphases changed perhaps, sequences transposed or left out until both the editor and director are satisfied with the result so that they can arrange a screening to the producer of what may now be termed the fine cut. He may have useful suggestions to make, both because he has not been so intimately involved over such a long period and may spot immediately some part of the film which is unclear, dull or slow.

He may also have political points to consider, knowing the backers, investors or distributors. But he must perform his balancing act with the utmost tact, remembering that his first loyalty is to the film. Showings may have to be arranged to these other parties and it may be advisable to add more of the sound track for a rough cut screening, as the picture having been handled frequently in the cutting room can indeed look pretty rough and with no music and scant sound effects at this stage still requires a lot of imagination on the part of the viewer. By moving forward a few steps, the film may look more polished and thus reassure a lay audience at these rough cut shows but should major changes be demanded, retreat can become more difficult and costly.

The sound track

Assuming the film survives unscathed from these various screenings, the next stages of editing can proceed. The editor and director will start planning the sound track -the sections which will require music and the extent of the sound effects. Here a dubbing editor with one or more assistants may take over the film and assume responsibility for this part of the operation right up to the stage of dubbing the film.

Dubbing in this context means the mixing together of all the sound tracks – dialogue, music and sound effects – at the right levels so that one sound does not drown out another but maximum dramatic impact is achieved by the volume of each sound. The final mix is then re-recorded on to magnetic tape and is called the final mixed or dubbed track.

The editor may be concerned with post-synching or ADR (automatic dialogue replacement) of parts of the film where location recording has proved to be of not high enough quality, due to background noise of traffic, aircraft, wind or other things outside the recordist’s control.

This involves the assistant removing scenes from the cutting copy and making them into rolls or loops of picture and the sound track already recorded which may be called guide track. The picture sections are cued where the dialogue starts and finishes and the artists make a new recording of the dialogue matching the lip movements on the screen but now in perfect acoustic conditions of a recording theatre. The director will be present at these sessions for the artists will be giving virtually a fresh performance.

Music

A composer will by now have been appointed and discussions of the Type of music and the make-up and size of the orchestra will be considered. Budgetary constraints may be a factor here although sometimes the most effective scores have arisen out of small or unexpected combinations, the zither in The Third Man being a classic example. Electronically produced music, whilst certainly more economical than a 60 piece orchestra, can sometimes be just as effective.

The principal consideration in background music in films is that there are no rules. Extremely catchy music using a single instrument like the harmonica in Genevieve can work; a large orchestra or anything in between and highly abstract music can also work. All can equally fail miserably.

Once the music sections of the film have been agreed by the editor, director and composer, the assistant editor can then prepare music cue sheets (see Figure 14 page 53). These are lists starting with a description of the first shot of each section and measured in feet from zero. The footage of any particularly relevant point (an action or word of dialogue) within a scene may also be marked as the composer may want to punctuate this with a note or phrase of music.

When the composer has completed the score, he may try out sections on the director and editor by playing on a piano but this is seldom satisfactory as it is hard to give an impression of the different instruments and orchestration. This is where the composer who produces his own electronic music has the advantage for he can bring a cassette of music into the cutting room and run it roughly in synch with the picture. He can then return to his studio and make changes or additions.

Music session

In the case of a composer using an orchestra, his next job is to get his score copied for each instrument and possibly for a fixer to be engaged. A fixer signs up the best instrumentalists available at the time that the music recording theatre has been booked for the music session.

Some composers conduct their own score and sometimes a conductor is employed. The fixer liaises with the production manager and the accountant over the rates to be paid to each individual musician which may include such extra items as doubling on two instruments, porterage and travelling. The Musicians Union is highly organised and the schedule for music recording is very important to the producer for if it is exceeded by even one hour over the normal session of four hours, payment will have to be made to all the musicians for a further complete session.

The music recording will be attended by the producer, director and editor and the assistant will have marked or removed the various sections from the cutting copy. The first section of music from reel 1 is called 1M1, the second in reel 1, 1M2 and so on through the film. Each recording of each section is announced by the conductor or recordist ‘1M1 Take 1’ and notes are made of the best takes as far as performance and fitting the synch points are concerned.

During the recording, the section of music is projected on a screen or monitor facing the conductor and the start of each section is cued in from zero with the accumulating footages also projected. Footages from the music cue sheet will appear where necessary on the conductor’s score and it is up to him to regulate the tempo of the orchestra accordingly.

A copy of the score will also be with the recordist or recording engineer who also has the responsibility for placing the various microphones for the instruments in the studio. In making the recording, he will be aiming to get the best balance between the instruments in collaboration with the composer. In all probability, he will record each track separately and only after the session is completed will he mix the various tracks into one master music mix.

Other technicians in the recording studio are recording assistants to lace up and supervise the recording on tape of the various tracks and projectionists who are screening the music sections of the film. The various recorded sections of music are transferred to 35mm magnetic tape for the cutting room and all this has to be logged and filed by the assistant editor before being fitted synchronously against the cutting copy by the editor or dubbing editor.

Sound effects

The dubbing editor will now be acquiring the sound effects for the film, either by arranging to have them specially recorded or by obtaining them from a library of sound effects.

Strangely, the recording of footsteps is one of the most laborious parts of this operation; footsteps recorded during production in a studio or on location are seldom sufficiently distinct, as the recordist has concentrated on the dialogue. Thus in exactly the same way as rolls were made up for post-synching dialogue, so are they prepared for recording footsteps. There are a few artists who specialise in the recording of footsteps and their experience can speed up enormously somewhat wearisome recording sessions in a studio. The artist arrives with a bag of assorted shoes and boots to match the characters on the screen and the studio provides a variety of surfaces like paving stones, gravel or wood.

Dubbing the film

So the number of cans of sound tracks begins to increase, each track of each reel of cutting copy with its start mark and synchronised with the action cutting copy. And most importantly, clearly marked both on the leaders of the tapes and boxes or cans – reel 1 music 1, reel 1 FX 1, reel 1 FX 2 and so on. (FX is the traditional shortening of the word effects.) The reason for several sound tracks in parallel is that many sounds will be superimposed and each will have to have its own level in the final mix. If there are long sections of consistent background noise such as traffic or restaurant chatter, loops may be made up for these.

When all these tracks have been completed and laid, the assistants will prepare a dubbing cue sheet to assist the sound mixer in the dubbing theatre. These cue sheets are made up for each reel and show the footage of every sound – dialogue, music, sound effects – against descriptions of the picture with special sound punctuations marked. Often different tracks can be shown in different colours to make the chart clearer for the mixer.

The basic purpose of mixing or dubbing has already been described. And so the producer, director, editor, dubbing editor and assistants assemble in the dubbing theatre for one of the final processes in post-production.

The dubbing theatre is a viewing theatre equipped for running the picture with a great many tracks interlocked to run synchronously. Once laced up, they can be run forwards or backwards remaining in synch; when it was first introduced this system was given the name ‘rock and roll’.

In the theatre, the dubbing mixer with one or more assistants, depending on the number of tracks, sit behind a mixing desk or console. Each track has its own fader and it is the mixer’s job to regulate these at the right level to give the greatest creative mix to the sound track overall. The director and editors may have their own views as to what they have in mind for particular points in the film but both the technical and creative skills of the mixer should be paramount.

The lacing up and supervision of the picture and tracks require projectionists and the supervision of the recording calls for recording assistants.

If foreign language versions of the film are eventually to be made, a mix of the music and effects only, leaving out any dialogue or narration, may also be done. This track is called an M and E.

Laboratory completion work

When the dubbing has been completed, provided the film is scheduled for a normal cinema release, the mixed

magnetic track is transferred to optical negative film which is sent to the laboratory for developing.

Apart from the final work at the lab, there are only two other processes of post-production which concern the cutting room. The first is the design and photography of the titles and credits and these can be a mini-production in themselves, not only from the point of view of design but also with timing, synchronising with music, for example. They may incorporate complicated animation techniques and special effects and are often sub-contracted to companies who specialise in this sort of work. At their most basic, they can consist of computer generated or printed art work photographed on a rostrum camera (see Chapter 5 on Animation).

The second process is the ordering and making up of opticals. Opticals are fades in the picture, mixing from one scene to another (may be called dissolves) or any other device for transition between scenes other than a straight cut. At one time in feature films, a great variety of optical - vertical and horizontal wipes, hard or soft edge, irises, ripples and so on were used and laboratories published catalogues of the choice of these devices they could make. They have largely gone out of fashion now, except in trailers, although there has been a resurgence in two other areas – pop videos and television titles, where they are achieved in the video edit suite and not optically in the laboratory.

The optical process in the laboratory means re-photographing the two scenes of negative on to a duplicate negative which incorporates the effect required. A print of the finished optical is sent to the cutting room for cutting in to the cutting copy and a print of the titles is similarly cut in.

There may have to be a final show of the cutting copy with the mixed track to a variety of interested parties before the film can be sent to the laboratory for the last stage of post-production.

Negative cutting and grading

The negative of the film has remained virtually untouched all this time in the laboratory, apart from logging, that is writing down the key or edge numbers of each scene and breaking down the separate scenes in much the same way as was done in the cutting room with the rushes. But with one major difference, that all handling has to be done wearing cotton gloves and in spotless and dust-free conditions.

When the cutting copy is received at the lab, a negative cutter is allocated to the film whose job is to match the negative scene by scene to the cutting copy, cutting the negative to the right length. This is done by putting the cutting copy into a synchroniser and running the negative in synch with the print, having matched exactly the key numbers. Each piece of negative is then joined to the next by a special joiner which uses a kind of hot welding process.

When the negative is loaded into the printer, to avoid the possibility of the joins jumping, especially in the case of 16mm negative, a system may be used called A & B rolls. Here the cut negative is assembled in two rolls and the length of the negative on the A roll extended slightly beyond the cut indicated in the cutting copy. The incoming scene is similarly extended on the B roll and the exact position of the cut made by an automatic device on the printer. In order to keep the two rolls of negative in synch, black film or spacing is used.

When the picture negative of each reel has been cut, the start has to be synchronised with the respective start marks on both picture and sound optical negatives and academy leaders joined front and end. Academy leaders are the standard leaders with start marks and numbers at one foot intervals which assist the projectionist in lacing up the projector. Their name derives from the standard format drawn up by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in Hollywood.

Grading and printing

Upon completion of the negative cutting, the film now passes to the colour grader for his assessment of each scene for colour printing. He may have notes provided by the editor, director or cameraman advising him of any special treatment required in any scene, night shots for example.

The film is now ready for a first colour combined (that is picture and sound on one piece of film) optical print to be made. This may be called an answer, grading or merely first print and at this stage, it is useful if the cameraman can see it with the grader. Very often by this time he is away on another film and so it is up to the producer, director and editor to make their comments with the grader’s own, for it is fairly rare for the first print to be perfect in every respect.

And so further prints are made (their number may be restricted if the budget is stretched by now) until all grading adjustments have been made and a show copy is produced which, as its name suggests, is suitable for public showing.

In order to protect the precious original negative, a copy negative (CRI – colour reversal internegative) is also made and prints from this may require further grading adjustments. It is from these CRIs that the bulk prints for release to cinemas are made.

The final stages

And so the production processes of a feature film are complete apart from various tidying up affairs such as preparation of release scripts, a complete list of each shot with timings, picture and sound (see Figure 16 page 64), preparation of trailers, registration and censorship, completion of the accounts and arrangements for publicity and marketing.

GETTING INTO FEATURE FILM MAKING

Scriptwriter

Obviously, the first requirement is to have the desire, ability and talent to write and, in the case of features, to appreciate what will make a good film story for cinema audiences.

Feature scriptwriters often share their time or move from writing for the theatre, books, television, journalism, advertising or documentary film making.

There are various ways of studying to be a scriptwriter:

• 1.By acquiring existing scripts, many of which are published in book form from specialist bookshops like Zwemmers, 80 Charing Cross Road, London WC2 or The Cinema Bookshop, 13/14 Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3NH.
• 2.By reading the wealth of ‘how to’ books on script-writing (such as Screenwriting for the 21st Century) available from specialist bookshops listed in the British Film Institute Film and Television Handbook (see Appendix).
• 3.By trying to get employment as a reader for a film or television production company. Readers assess the potential of the masses of ideas submitted and provide a chance for you to see the good and the bad and study those that eventually make it to the screen.
• 4.By taking a course at a reputable film school where professional scriptwriters visit or are employed as lecturers (see Chapter 7 on Training).
• 5.By attending courses run by TAPS. Contact them at Shepperton Studios, Shepperton, Middx TW17 0QD. Tel: (01932) 5912151. email: taps@tvarts.demon.co.uk

Assuming you have already written a treatment or outline script, send a copy to suitable literary agents, directors, producers and/or production companies and enclose a stamped addressed envelope if you want it returned. Keep a note of where you send copies and if there is a glimmer of response from anywhere, telephone to arrange a meeting. Even if comments are negative, seek advice and suggestions as to other people who might be interested.

Production Department

These are the typical jobs in a Production Department:

Production manager

Assistant director (first, second or third)
Production supervisor (or production secretary)
Script supervisor (or Continuity)
Production accountant
Bookkeeper
Secretarial
Runner/tea person

All these jobs are organisational and administrative to a greater or lesser degree. They are not necessarily short cuts to creative jobs although there have, of course, been exceptions, especially with runners. Even though this job might be considered by some to be humble and very often it can entail long hours and hectic patches with minimum reward, it gives someone with ambition the chance to study the organisational side of production and, more importantly, to get to know a wide range of people.

For any of the jobs in this department with the possible exception of assistant directors, office and secretarial skills are almost essential. Certainly being able to Type and being

computer literate is always useful, especially at times of stress when secretarial services may not be available.

The accounts department obviously requires the same qualifications that are called for in any business and the specialised knowledge of film production relating to accountancy is usually acquired on the job.

Someone with bookkeeping or accountancy experience who subsequently attends a film school would be at a distinct advantage when it came to getting employment and several producers have come from the ranks of accountants.

Anyone keen to be involved in any of the jobs on the organisational side of features should write to the production manager of feature film companies, stressing any organisational experience and office skills such as typing or word processing. Any involvement or special interest in films such as secretary of a film society, school film club or drama group would attract attention.

Parallel experience in other media like radio, television or advertising might give the edge to your application and, as with all job seeking, try to get an interview and seek advice and suggestions of other people to whom you might write.

Remember that, unless you are applying for a known vacancy, the chance of your letter arriving at the precise moment that a feature film is being set up and a production unit put together is pretty slim.

The bulk of jobs in features are freelance and the nature of freelance work, even for the most experienced, is keeping your ear to the ground so that you are up to date with what films are being planned and the projected start dates. Studying news in the trade papers (see Appendix) is useful although not always reliable! There are several websitges with job vacancies too. Try www.mandy.com or www.shootingpeople.com

Art department

Designer
Art director
Draughtsman
Set dresser
Property buyer
Runner

This is a department where in the case of the first three jobs, training outside the industry is a virtual necessity. As well as having the ability to draw, this could be skill in technical drawing, architecture or, in the case of titles or signwriting, graphic design.

Set dressers and property buyers should be able to read and interpret plans and have the ability to find relevant items called for by the designer, especially in films with other than a contemporary setting.

Once again, as in all job seeking, it is a question of research finding out what productions are being set up by which companies. Write to the production manager or the designer or art director working on a particular project in its early stages and state your qualifications and offer to bring examples of your work. Stress your interest in the design of feature films, and any research you may have done into the subject of set design in past films.

An advantage of working in the art department is that due to the sporadic nature of feature film production, periods of inactivity between films can be filled with work in parallel fields such as architecture, exhibition work or theatre.

Costume design

Costume design
Wardrobe
Runner

Formal art school or practical training in the garment industry is really necessary. Many costume designers started in the theatre and indeed may share their time continuing to do theatre work between films so theatre experience is useful for a newcomer too.

Working in collaboration with the designer and the lighting cameraman is part of the job and therefore colour co-ordination and knowledge of materials, both from a practical and budgetary point of view, is necessary.

The costume designer’s work may overflow at times of panic into the practicalities of dressmaking and fitting and although wardrobe is basically responsible for ensuring the right clothes are there in the right condition, impeccably pressed or suitably dirtied down, at the right time and place, this job may also overflow into on the spot adaptation or repairs. So practical skills are required plus the ability to adapt to working conditions which, on location, are not always ideal.

For jobs in this area, write to the production manager or the costume designer and besides giving your qualifications and practical experience, stress your appreciation of the fact that you have to be adaptable to unexpected situations and squeezed schedules.

Casting director or artists’ agent

People who do these jobs may have moved from being actors themselves, as extensive knowledge of the profession is required and, in the case of casting director, knowledge of agents and their clients. Additionally, good organisation and negotiating skills are required and many people have acquired these through secretarial experience in production offices or by working in agents’ offices.

Knowledge of contemporary film, television and theatre with regard to casting and contact with drama schools are additional attributes plus the ability to read a script and match suitable, available and affordable artists to the characters, although, apart from the very smallest parts, the director normally has the final say.

If you want to start in this department and are not already established as an actor, the best way in is via office jobs but when you apply, try to convince people of your knowledge of the current casts of films, stage productions and television dramas.

Camera department

Lighting cameraman
Camera operator
Focus puller
Clapper/loader
Grip
VT operator
Runner

Traditionally in feature films the route into this department has been via clapper/loader and progression through focus puller to camera operator and thence to lighting cameraman.

However, experience in other fields such as documentary or television and qualifications from a reputable film school have led to people becoming lighting cameramen much quicker on features now.

Experience and interest in still photography as an amateur or professional is always a good foundation for entry to the camera department and with the growth of cheaper video cameras (which can be hired in high street shops) there is no reason why aspiring entrants cannot produce examples of their work, however ham-fisted.

But this is an area of the industry where a variety of training opportunities exist and so unless you are convinced that ‘on job’ training is the only route for you, formal training courses are preferable, if only because you get the opportunity for hands-on experience in all jobs using a variety of equipment.

‘On job’ knowledge can be obtained by applying to companies that hire out equipment and services to features and this would probably be one of the best points of entry for grips. But the work consists largely of checking and maintaining equipment and you would therefore have to convince the company of your ability to handle sophisticated mechanical things and your knowledge of lenses.

For lists of facilities companies, consult the trade directories listed in the Appendix. If applying for work in the camera department of a particular feature film, write to the production manager or the lighting cameraman, who is normally responsible for engaging his own camera crew.

Editing department

Editor
Dubbing editor
Assistant editor (first, second or third)

Undoubtedly one of the best starting points for any branch of film production – features, documentaries, commercials and so on – is via the cutting room, or editing suite.

Here is a chance to examine the work of other people in design, camera, sound, direction, even budgets and how wisely or otherwise money has been spent. All of which means that anyone with ultimate ambitions to direct or produce could not do better than consider the cutting room as a possible initial stepping stone.

That is not to say that the job of editor is not wholly satisfying in itself and many editors have temperaments better suited to working in the confines of the cutting room and thus contributing their talents to the effectiveness of the film.

The normal progression in the case of features is from third to second to first assistant editor and thence the chance to edit. Between features, many editors and cutting room staff may fill in with work on documentaries or commercials with their shorter schedules and it is here that the experienced assistant editor may stand a better chance of being able to do some actual editing.

Write to the editor of any feature film set up or to the production manager if the editor has not been appointed. Experience in handling film is still possible through membership of a film society making amateur movies, working in a film laboratory (see page 56) or working for a company supplying numbering services (see page 45).

Apart from training at a film school or FT2 (see page 163), the more usual route into feature cutting rooms is via experience in documentaries, commercials or television.

There are companies that provide editing facilities for a variety of productions but it is rare for these companies to be asked to take on a feature film. (See Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 dealing with Commercials and Documentaries.)

Bigger budget feature films may employ runners in the cutting room and this time honoured starting point is as ideal here as in any department. But a word of warning about the job of runner anywhere. Don’t think it’ll be a soft option – it can be extremely hard work with long hours and don’t look at it necessarily as leading to promotion five minutes after you’ve started the job. Be patient, do the job well and use the time to make contacts and learn from observing other people at work.

Director

The commonest illusion among people who nurse an ambition to ‘get into films or television’ is that they all want to direct. This is often due to ignorance of the structure of the industry and of the great number of jobs that may be available in other departments in all the different areas of film and programme making.

A few years ago, David Puttnam addressing a gathering of several hundred film students began with these remarks: ‘It is possible that three or four of you here today may succeed in becoming film directors’. After the ensuing shattered silence, he then developed his theme of the few opportunities that realistically exist for directors compared to the number with aspirations.

This is not to decry ambition but merely to present a practical approach to becoming a director; for equally certainly, in spite of recurrent crises in feature film production, there is a constant need to encourage new talent, especially now that the dividing line becomes more blurred between films for cinemas with subsequent release on video or DVD, films financed or made especially for television and television financed films made for release in cinemas prior to TV release.

So how do you set about becoming a feature film director? Undoubtedly the best chances come to students who have completed a course at one of the leading film schools (see Chapter 7 Training) and who have made an impressive graduation film; and from a budgetary point of view and from demonstrating talent and imagination in the use of film technique, the shorter the better. A short film, say 10-15 minutes long, is preferable from another more mundane standpoint. Film producers and production executives lead very busy and stressful existences and their time is overflowing with a mass of meetings, punctuated by telephone interruptions and visitors who, in their mind, may be more important than a newcomer’s presentation. A short film should display the potential of its director right from the start and there is therefore a better chance that the viewer might remain hooked without interruption.

But no producer is likely to engage a director for a feature film on the strength of one short. So what are the other ingredients to bolster your presentation?

An option or the rights in a property that will make a good feature film - a book, play, treatment or script – could certainly be attractive. And if the aspiring director also has access to finance, this could appeal to a producer as well!

But the fact is that very few outsiders stand any chance of becoming a feature film director without having acquired experience in other fields such as feature film editing, directing commercials, documentaries, television drama or directing in the theatre.

So the most sensible advice for those whose ultimate ambition is to direct feature films is to enrol at an accredited film school and/or gain a foundation of experience as outlined above.

Producer

From the beginning of the film industry there have always been producer/directors who have wanted to control every aspect of a film. Chaplin is probably the best example of these showmen/impresarios.

But the size and complexity of the financial and organisational side of feature film production means that most directors now prefer to leave this part of the operation to a producer so as to allow them to concentrate more on the creative elements.

The producer’s more detached view should however be of value to the director when it comes to constructive criticism of the film’s effectiveness, especially if the producer has worked his way up through production. The relationship between producer and director may be a delicate one but, with mutual respect, can be extremely rewarding to both.

So, assuming your ultimate aim is to be ‘captain of the ship’, with a preference for organisational and entrepreneurial skills and with only the lightest touch to the creative tiller, what are the best starting points and possible routes to the top?

It would be a very exceptional person who could find and acquire the rights to a subject, interest a director and assemble the necessary finance to set up as a producer from scratch but it could be done without any previous experience whatsoever.

But to be realistic, the more likely progression, as with directors, is via formal training at a film school and experience in other technical and/or administrative areas of feature films or, most likely of all, via experience in other branches of film making such as documentaries, commercials or television leading to producing more modest projects than a feature film.

Experience in accountancy or business studies are both helpful assets as are general organisational and leadership skills. The setting up, mounting, production and completion of a feature film is a major commercial enterprise when it is considered that the producer is responsible for a budget that may run into many millions of dollars. The final product will be expected to appeal to a wide international market and have a long life with a variety of outlets. So the final attribute of a producer is to have that indefinable entrepreneurial vision, with an instinct for what the public wants. And that is a rare talent indeed!

So if you think that you can take on the frustrations, responsibilities and possible rewards of being a producer, then the most practical advice is precisely the same as suggested in the last paragraph devoted to directors above: enrol for training at an accredited film school, followed by the broadest experience possible in other departments of feature films or other areas of film making.

In parallel, you should always be keeping a look out for suitable subjects to acquire and develop in collaboration with a writer and director. And always foster any contacts with access to finance. And if you haven’t a clue where to go for funding, there is a website, www.shootingpeople.org which will guide you to their book UK Film Finance Guide.

Craft grades

Carpenter
Plasterer
Painter
Rigger
Electrician
Make-up
Hairdresser
Wardrobe
Props
Upholsterer/drapes
Construction manager
Plumber
Scaffolder

All the above crafts, excluding electrician, have traditionally in feature films come under the umbrella of BECTU – The Broadcasting Entertainment Cinematograph and Theatre Union, as do other specialised, though not in the film sense, technical jobs such as driver, nurse or catering staff.

Although changes in legislation regarding trade unions mean that the closed shop can no longer exist, the union in this case continues to exert influence and safeguard the rates of pay and conditions of its members in feature films.

Specific craft training geared only to feature films, apart from that operated by FT2 (see Page 163) is still fairly sparse. General training and qualifications from colleges, or ‘on job’ training outside the film industry for the particular skill that interests you most, is the best foundation on which you can base your entry into features. Thereafter there are limited possible vacancies for apprentices and trainees in all grades.

Skillset, the UK Film Council and the union are concerned at the lack of formal training which they maintain with justification will lead to skill shortages in the future. It is therefore advisable for anyone wanting to work in any of the crafts listed above to consult BECTU whose address is: 373-377 Clapham Road, London SW9 9BT. Tel: (020) 7346 0900 or Skillset (see page 153).

Electricians need a minimum four years’ apprenticeship and appropriate City and Guilds Qualification. Contact: Amalgamated Engineering and Electrical Union, Longley House, East Park Crawley, West Sussex RH10 6AP Tel: (01293) 544419.

See also Chapter 7 on Training for electricians and other crafts.

Projection

Studios, apart from the very smallest and those that operate entirely as ‘four wallers’, usually have their own viewing theatres for screening rushes and for the use of the cutting rooms.

The projectors are similar in many respects to those in commercial cinemas and are operated by projectionists. Projectionists operate the projectors in recording and dubbing theatres as well.

The job of a projectionist on the production side of feature films is very similar to that of a projectionist in a commercial cinema with the exception that in production the projectionist may be operating for shorter periods of frantic activity, lacing up and showing shorter lengths of film, re-showing them immediately and collaborating with other technicians such as editors and cameramen who expect the utmost quality as they may be checking some suspected fault such as focus or steadiness.

This means that maintenance of equipment features high on the work schedule of studio and production projectionists and speed and adaptability are other useful skills.

Experience in the basic mechanics of projectors and the handling of 35mm film can be gained by working in a commercial cinema and there are many eminent people in the film industry who started their careers in this way.

As in the case of working in the cutting room, the projectionist sees a film in its raw state and often makes contact with other technicians from directors and editors at the rushes stage to dubbing editors and recordists if working in post production recording theatres. Knowledge of laboratory work can often be acquired, for example colour and sound quality; and this, in turn, can lead to interests in film stocks, lenses and cameras.

And so the job of projectionist, important though it is as part of the whole production process, is also useful as a route to other departments.

The way in to the job is via the studios who rent out their facilities including theatres to feature film producers. Other companies may offer only viewing, dubbing and recording facilities, not only to features but to other areas of film making.

The names of these companies and of the studios can be found in the directories listed in the Appendix.

Write to the studio manager of studios or the managing director of companies stating your experience in a commercial cinema or even in handling 16mm projectors for a film society, at school or in the church hall and stress your commitment to film and to showing it in the best possible conditions, backed up by your interest in the latest projection equipment.

Publicity

Publicists, whether employed exclusively on a feature film and hence called unit publicists, or working for a company that is responsible for publicity on a number of projects, invariably move from being journalists or from working in public relations.

Stills photographers may be employed in the same way and also tend to come from newspapers and magazines.

The job of a unit stills photographer, besides requiring technical skills and, as in newspapers, the ability to work fast in a variety of conditions has what can sometimes be an additionally difficult aspect. Stills are required for publicity purposes of virtually every key scene of a film and are usually done after a satisfactory take. The order from the assistant director to ‘hold it for a still’ may be recognised by everybody as a necessity but on top of sometimes pent up emotions following a particularly difficult scene, the stills photographer is not always welcome, hence the need for speed and tact.

Tact is also an asset for publicists, coping with the moods and whims of stars or temperamental directors. But, besides this, the ability to write is the first requirement.

There can be opportunities in the publicity department of a feature film or a publicity company for runners or office juniors but if you confess any ambition to progress when you are interviewed for these jobs, the minimum requirement would be A level English. An English degree and a proven ability to write might also help your promotion.

Write to the unit publicist of a feature film in preparation or, if one has not been appointed, to the production manager. In the case of companies specialising in publicity, write to the managing director (see Appendix for listings).

Sound department

Sound recordist
Boom operator or boom swinger
Sound mixer
Sound assistant

On feature films the minimum sound crew originally stipulated by the union for shooting ‘on the floor’, that is in a studio or on location, used to be three: a recordist, boom swinger and maintenance person.

The equipment was bulkier and less reliable and holdups due to technical faults were costly and frustrating. Now that recording gear is simpler and lighter, the normal crew is two, replacement of faulty equipment being easier than carrying out maintenance on the spot.

Of course, knowledge of the equipment is necessary for anyone in the sound department, and some theory of recording techniques is as well, but, almost as important, both for floor recordists and sound mixers in recording and dubbing theatres, is a familiarity and ‘feel’ both for the equipment and the quality of the sound.

This applies equally to the boom swinger who must have the same ‘feel’ and memory for dialogue as spoken by the various artists so as to be able to anticipate the best position for the microphone(s) during recording. A knowledge of camera lenses is also necessary to avoid the intrusion of the microphone into the picture area during a shot.

Sound recording certainly forms part of any film school training and there are other specialised short courses (see Chapter 7 on Training) but experience for those keen to work in features can be obtained, as in other departments, by working on more modest productions such as documentaries.

Apart from FT2 (see page 163), there are very few opportunities for the inexperienced person to get into feature film making on the production sound crew. In recording or dubbing theatres however, there may be vacancies for runners and/or tea persons and this can lead to becoming a sound assistant who supervises and loads with tape the equipment that actually does the recording. Besides knowledge and dexterity in the use of the machines, this job also requires an orderly mind as tape has to be filed and accounted for and records and report sheets filled in.

Continuing experience here can certainly lead to becoming either a recordist or mixer. Although in the case of the latter there can be considerable creative input, floor and studio recordists have fewer creative opportunities but their jobs certainly demand high degrees of skill and technical knowledge.

The potential newcomer to a department as competitive as any other in features is well advised to accumulate as much technical qualification as possible, backed up by experience in other areas of film making or sound recording which might include radio or music. There are plenty of opportunities too to acquire experience in sound recording as an amateur.

Write to the production manager or the sound recordist if you think you have sufficient qualifications and/or experience for floor recording jobs or the head of sound or managing director of a recording or dubbing theatre, either attached to a studio or set up as a separate company to provide these facilities for feature films (see Appendix for directories).

Laboratory work

Negative cutter
Colour grader
Optical printer
Laboratory contact

In former days a ‘catch 22’ situation existed in the film industry whereby it was not possible to get a job without being a member of a trade union and membership was impossible without first having a job. Working in a film laboratory where vacancies sometimes occurred, especially in the more routine developing and printing areas, was a popular way of obtaining the much sought after union ticket with the aim of transferring to another part of the film industry at some later date.

Laboratory work is still a vital part of the whole production process although now severely restricted. But for those with scientific leanings it may be every bit as satisfying as the more creative areas of production. In addition, the jobs listed above involve considerable liaison with cameramen and editors for example. Stanley Kubrick, the feature film producer who died in 1999, still insisted on seeing every single print of any film he produced in the presence of the laboratory people concerned.

The starting points are therefore in developing, printing and cleaning for which no formal qualifications are necessarily required beyond GCSE but an interest in photography as an amateur is an advantage.

Write to the managing director or personnel department of laboratories (see Appendix for directories).

Kodak run film handling courses which do not provide as much practical work as their title suggests but would be useful for a newcomer. For further information contact:

Kodak Ltd, Motion Picture and Television Division, Kodak House, PO Box 66, Hemel Hempstead, Herts HP1 1JU

The approach of DVD (Digital Video Disc) for recording the original material and screening the finished production on DVD will revolutionize showings in cinemas, but this development is still some way off.

SUMMING UP

Jobs in feature film production are almost entirely freelance and have always been oversubscribed at every level. They depend on keeping up to date (through the trade magazines, for example) with what productions are being planned and being virtually on the spot at the crucial moment when starting dates are fixed and crews being signed up.

There are three publications devoted solely to supplying this information. PCR (Production and casting report) and FILMLOG (£27.50 for five weeks and £11 for three months respectively) are available on subscription only. They are not cheap but it is money well spent for the determined. Particulars from: P O Box 100, Broadstairs, Kent CT10 1UJ. Tel: (01843) 860885 or (01715) 668282.

The third is: Advance Production News, Crimson Communications, 211A Station House, 49 Greenwich High Road, London SE10 8JL. Tel: (020) 8305 6905. Website: www.crimsonuk.com

There are two good websites for all sorts of jobs (not just features) at www.shootingpeople.org and www.mandy.com

Jobs in other areas of production made on film is useful experience to proffer when applying for work in features and, because they are likely to last for shorter periods, still allow you to look for jobs in features in parallel.

There are so many elements of film and television production in, for example, commercials, pop videos or documentaries that are similar to features that the next chapters will not go into nearly as much detail and it is therefore suggested that the reader refers back frequently to this first chapter.