Although there is considerable controversy about the nature of thinking, one way of defining it is to see it as two kinds of approach to solving problems or to selecting the appropriate course of action to be taken. The two forms thinking takes under this definition are:

• 1.Convergent, logical, analytical, highly predictable thinking
• 2.Divergent, creative, insightful, unpredictable thinking.

Headless chickens tend to be poor at the first and not much better at the second, mainly because both kinds of thinking require a certain amount of discipline. Laidback bears take the time to think before acting, and the time they spend doing this is more than saved in avoiding nonproductive activity.

Convergent thinking

This kind of thinking follows logical paths. It looks for a correct answer, converging upon it from the information the thinker has available. It is used to analyse quantifiable problems. Its approaches and often its results are generally predictable.

Convergent thinking is most effective when there is information available which can be handled logically (as in finding the causes of a mechanical breakdown - if your car rolls to a stop on the motorway, you check all the possible causes systematically and logically). It is effective when there is a high probability of there being a single right answer. It is effective in analysing both evidence and arguments.

How well we communicate with each other depends to a large extent on how clearly we think. If our thinking is faulty, then what we say or write will be faulty. At least three kinds of unclear thinking, of which headless chickens tend more often to be afflicted, can be identified.

Emotional thinking

If we base our conclusions about ideas, objects, people, events, and so on, not on the processes of reasoning, but on our emotional reactions to them - whether we like or dislike them, despise or fear them, are pleased or angered by them - we are once again on unsafe ground. Emotional thinking leads to prejudging and prejudice, and as such is unacceptable as a basis for action in a rational, civilised society. It leads to the panicky reaction of the headless chicken.

Dishonest thinking

Here the illogical and emotional processes of thinking are used deliberately to reach conclusions beneficial to an individual and harmful to others. The point about dishonest thinking is that those who use it are shutting their minds to the truth, either consciously because it suits them or unconsciously through lack of self-insight.

Superficial thinking

In this kind of thinking, errors occur and false conclusions are reached simply because the individual has not devoted enough time to thinking about the problem or question. It is the kind of thinking which is particularly encouraged in an age of mass communication, with the preference for the short and the simple - and the trivial. Evidence to support this can be found in the thinking of any headless chicken.

The Characteristics of Clear Thinking

If we are to avoid the faults in thinking discussed above, our thinking should possess at least four main characteristics of which laidback bears are the masterly proponents.

Awareness of the rules of logic

It is easier to say which kinds of thinking break the rules of logic than to state precisely what those rules are but, basically, logical thought is concerned with the relationships between statements rather than with the truth or falsity of particular statements. It is possible to arrive at a logical conclusion which is untrue, if the original statements are untrue. However, the test to prevent this kind of situation arising lies in basing statements on evidence. A logical conclusion, then, is one which follows inescapably from what has been stated previously. An awareness of logic helps us to tell whether faults in our thinking arise from poor information or poor thought processes. It is only when we know the source of any error that we can begin to do something to remedy it.

Avoidance of emotional reactions and prejudices

We can never eliminate entirely the presence of emotion in our reactions to statements, situations, issues or problems, nor can we ever be completely free of prejudice, but, if we can identify the occasions on which we react emotionally and if we can become aware of our own prejudices, we can begin to lessen the influence they have over our thinking. If we are to think clearly, this self-awareness and self-insight are essential, for it simply is not possible for the headless chicken to think rationally and reasonably. Useful discussion should, therefore, be a cool, dispassionate process.

Honesty

We need to be especially honest about our own motives. We may choose to hide those motives from others in order to achieve a specific objective, but we should never be in danger of deluding ourselves about what it is we really want. This self-examination is another essential part of the process of thinking clearly. It also helps considerably, of course, if we can be honest with each other, even over motives. This way we are much more likely to be able to get at the truth of a situation, settle an issue or resolve a problem.

Adequate consideration of problems

This does not refer simply to the need to allow sufficient time for consideration, but refers also to the need for enough evidence on which to base a conclusion. In other words, before we can decide whether the stated relationships between facts, and hence the conclusions drawn from them, are correct, we must first of all check the accuracy of the facts. Thus, we can identify three stages in the process of allowing adequate consideration:

• 1.Check the accuracy of the information available as thoroughly as possible;
• 2.Check the validity of the relationships claimed to exist between various pieces of information;
• 3.Check the logical validity and the truth of the conclusions drawn by reference back to the information from which they stem.

Divergent Thinking

On the other hand, divergent thinking follows few rules. It does not look for a single correct answer, nor indeed necessarily for any answer at all. Starting from a problem, a situation or a set of facts, it diverges, explores, seeks, freewheels, kicks around and examines things from many viewpoints. It is curious, provocative, controversial and even ridiculous. It is used to find new solutions to old problems, new ways of doing things and different approaches to all kinds of situations. It is unpredictable both in method and in results. It is laidback.

It is most effective where logical approaches have failed, or there is insufficient information for them to be used, or their use is inappropriate for any one of a thousand reasons. Divergent thinking is effective when there is a low probability that there is a single right answer or when an unusual, out-of-the-ordinary, insightful interpretation of the facts has to be made to find one, as in devising a name for a new product or re-inventing a corporate identity. It is effective in opening up new fields for exploitation and new areas for development.

Quality of ideas

One of the most difficult problems which faces those new to divergent thinking is that of producing a large enough sample of ideas from which to select one for dealing with the problem. The more that can be generated, the better the chance of finding one that will work.

The importance of deferring judgment

During the time that the ideas are being gathered, nothing should be rejected. Ridiculous ideas, if rejected too soon, will simply make the collection look neat and sensible. But it is also likely to be dull. If ridiculous ideas can be retained for the time being, they may well generate others which offer a sensible but radically new idea, interpretation or approach, so defer judgment during the production of ideas. The time for evaluation comes later. Headless chickens rush to judgment too quickly; laidback bears know to bide their time.

Techniques of Divergent Thinking

Although divergent thinking is, characteristically, unpredictable, there are certain basic principles and approaches which will help to stimulate it. They are of special value to those who are more familiar with the approaches of convergent thinking than with being creative. First of all, the problem must be stated and defined. It should be written down. This is necessary to give thinking a focal point. It will also help to reveal whether or not the subject is one in which divergent thinking can help. For instance, in industry, divergent thinking will be of more use in finding a name for a product or in producing marketing ideas for a product than in deciding whether or not to build a new factory in a particular place.

Secondly, there are at least eight techniques which can be applied to produce creative answers, solutions and suggestions. You should work systematically through the list until a reasonable amount of self-confidence in thinking divergently has been developed. These techniques are as follows:

• 1.Generation. Find as many ways of doing or looking at something as possible. Nothing should be rejected. However unpromising an idea may seem at first, it may acquire significance later.
• 2.Challenge the present situation. Is it really like this? Does it have to be like this? Is there really a problem? Could we look at things in some other way?
• 3.Inversion. Turn things completely round, or upside down. If, for example, a building contractor is designing a new kind of house, he might consider putting the bedrooms downstairs and the living room upstairs. This might in fact be the best way of doing things if the houses are being built on the side of a hill. The service roads could be built level with the upper floors of the houses at the back, and the living rooms would give better views over the surrounding countryside if they were upstairs.
• 4.Analogies. Compare the problem situation or issue to another. They need not be related for this technique to work. For example, comparing roads to railways may give us an idea for small uniform-sized units that could be coupled together and so reduce the traffic in towns while preserving the individuality and the privacy of the car. Again, comparing cars to beads (an unlikely analogy) could lead to the same kind of solution and might even suggest a method of linking car-like units together.
• 5.Allow ridiculous ideas. The motor car, aeroplane and submarine were once ridiculous ideas (not to mention going to the moon).
• 6.Waiting for inspiration. Doing nothing or allowing a period of mental incubation is a useful creative-thinking technique. Once the problem has been stated and defined, the brain will continue to work on it and possible solutions may come to mind at the oddest of times. Solutions discovered in this way can be revolutionary and yet highly practical.
• 7.Readiness for insight. This is closely allied to the previous technique and means being ready 24 hours a day for solutions to present themselves. If they do, they must be noted down straight away. Many good ideas thought of at 1 a.m. have vanished by 8 a.m. if they are not recorded. When illumination comes, one must be ready for it.
• 8.Repetition of process. Going over the same ground again often produces an additional idea which turns out to be the one that will work.

The third step in this approach to creative thinking is to take all ideas, interpretations, insights and solutions that have been produced and evaluate them. The process of evaluation is best carried out after at least an overnight break. The aim should be to try to identify the idea or solution which is most likely to succeed and which therefore is the one to be tried first.

Questioning

Many people are prevented from thinking divergently because they are quite content to accept things as they are. Even if they seek change, they look for improvements based on keeping things pretty much as they are. Change, in these circumstances, becomes minimal and to all intents and purposes the problems remain.

You should acquire the habit of questioning everything. Why is it like this? Why do we do it this way? ‘Why?’ is the most creative question you can ask, because it is the necessary first step to seeking new ideas.

Facility in doing this can be increased in much the same way as quantities of ideas are collected. A question is posed and then, within a time limit, all the solutions offered are taped or noted down.

Individual Brainstorming

Brainstorming sessions are usually group affairs, with everyone sitting around throwing ideas into a common ‘pool’ for later evaluation. The evidence that is available, however, indicates that more (and better) ideas are produced when people work individually on a topic than when they work as a group. The procedure to use, then, is as follows:

• 1.The problem to be the subject for brainstorming should be selected.
• 2.You should write your ideas down as quickly as you can without stopping to analyse their practicality.
• 3.It helps if 10 minutes is devoted to a warm-up session. Write down as many solutions to a specimen problem as you can think of in the time. See exercise 2 on page 42.
• 4.The main subject for brainstorming should then be written down.
• 5.The brainstorming session proper should follow and should last for about 30 minutes. The eight techniques described above may be used at any time that you wish.
• 6.You should write down as many solutions to the problem as you can think of in the time. No solution should be censored or rejected at this stage.
• 7.At the end of the brainstorming session, put your list away for 24 hours before trying to evaluate it. Headless chickens find it hard to do this, but it is necessary if you are to avoid rejecting fresh and unusual solutions.

Uses and value of divergent thinking

Most participants will by now have realised that divergent thinking techniques are of most use in finding new things to do, new ways of doing things, new interpretations and new outlooks. They are indeed invaluable not only in promoting change and development, but also in indicating precisely where and in which ways change and development can take place.